Section Editor: David Matarazzo
Technology Tips for the Teachers - David Matarazzo
The Basics on Networking - John MacCannell
Virus Hunting - David Matarazzo
Assessing Learning with Technology - Karin Wiburg
How to Get a Grant - Barbara Copeland
Technology Tips for The Teachers
By: David Matarazzo
Welcome to the section of the book that offers some tips for those of you trying to figure out what technology is all about. When I was a young lieutenant in the Infantry, we considered our radios as high technology. Most of the time, they didn't seem to work, and it seemed like we were always out of radio range. Our technology normally was "stubby pencil," the only computer printouts were at the motor pool and for Pay Day Activities.
If you're feeling like you're playing catch-up when it comes to technology, you're in good company. Since the late 70's and early 80's, technology rate has been doubling in capability every 18 months or so. In the last few years 1990's that 'or so' has been, and continues, to shrink.
While the computers (hardware) and programs or applications (software) have been getting more powerful, reliable, and cheaper over the last 2 decades, they still fail. When something does go wrong there are certain things you should and should not do to make sure that you don't cause additional problems. I realize that, "Hell is paved with good intentions. " Hopefully, these few suggestions will help you determine what has gone wrong; either fix the problem or at least eliminate some of the options prior to calling someone to repair the darned thing. When there is a problem with your computer, think of yourself as Sherlock Holmes because a lot of what you do is a process of elimination.
One nice thing about computers is that they really don't have that many moving parts to wear out. This means that usually when a machine does start to have a problem it is because one small piece has gone bad and everything else just kind of snowballs from there. Believe it or not, fixing the problem isn't the hardest part. It is finding the problem! Normally, we or a repair person have to go through that process of elimination.
Problem: Your machine worked fine yesterday. Today when you turned
it on, nothing happened.
Check: Make sure the plug is still in the wall. I know this sounds
silly, but check all the connections. From the wall to the computer, insure
that all the cables are snug and plugged in and that the circuit breaker
is set. Also check the connections from and to the monitor. Lastly, check
and make sure that the machine is turned on, as well as any surge devices
to make sure that they are operating correctly. It doesn't take much to
break the connection, especially if folks are cleaning the area and moving
stuff around. Do not flip the computers on and off switch back and forth.
Rule of thumb, turn your machine off wait 30 seconds or so before turning
it back on. Flipping on and off may cause damage to your hard drive and
may send power surges to your machine innards. Not a good idea, especially
if you wish to keep your machine in top shape.
Was there a power surge before the machine went dead? The power supply inside your machine is designed to sacrifice itself if there is a big enough power flux, trying its best to prevent damage to more expensive computer components. It also is a good idea that you replace that 1962 power surge device. Figure that you need to replace them about every 3 years. Why? After countless minor power surges throughout the months, they start to lose the ability to perform at their top level.
There is something else that you can check. As you probably know, when you have your computer on the boards create heat which is kind of related to power. That is the big reason why you hear the little fan. Besides being noisy, the fan keeps the board and central processing unit cooler. Still, the heating and the cooling, which occurs when you turn off your machine, can cause some of the memory chips, mainly on the mother board, to work their way loose. Those of you living where you have frost heaves in the winter know how it can really make a difference in the road. It is no different for your mother board. Using your thumb, press down on the chips on the main, (mother) board to make sure they are in good contact with their sockets. While you're at it, press down on the additional boards that fit into the large board, to make sure they have good contact.
Problem: Does the monitor say something like "Non -System
disk error Replace and press any key when ready"
Check: The floppy disk drive. This normally means someone forgot
to take a non-system floppy disk out of the computer before he/she turned
off the machine. Remove the offending disk and press 'any' key.
Problem: Does the machine act strange all the time or just when
certain programs are running?
Check: Still trying to narrow down the problem. Ask yourself:
1. Have you added any new software lately? Yes? / No?
2. Was there a problem before installing the new software? Yes? /No?
Sometime installing new software will automatically add stuff to two files on your PC. They are your AUTOEXEC.BAT and CONFIG.SYS. If so, then delete the new software. (Note: Before you have any problems with your machine and while the sun is shining and the world is sweet with your PC, make a backup copy of your autoexec.bat and config.sys files.) After deleting the new software, copy your old autoexec.bat and config.sys back onto your machine. This will get rid of any alterations that the new software made to these critical files. Hopefully, this will have solved the problem.
3. Did you discover a strange file and, in the spirit of saving space, decide to delete it? Yes? /No?
Hopefully you made a copy of it before you deleted it. Now reinstall it in the same directory! It is bad karma to delete unidentified files because they are often important. Rule of thumb, don't delete a file unless you have a super good reason for doing it.
4. Have you moved any files or directories around or perhaps changed any of their names?
Some files such as your autoexec.bat and config.sys must be in the root directory and be named that way in order for the machine to work properly, - or in this case, to work at all! If you have put the files back where they belong and they still don't work, your best bet is to reinstall the original program from your backup copy on the machine. Slip in your back up floppy systems disk with config.sys and autoexec.bat files and turn it on. With your fingers crossed, your machine should start up so that you can copy those files back into the root directory.
5. Have you installed a new card for some reason? Yes? /No?
There may be a conflict with a current setting. Check the information that came with the card. Of course, always, keep the documentation / packing material for reference. Who knows, it may come in handy if you have to send the part back!
Problem: Your machine starts up and shortly afterwards it starts
to 'beep' out of control (more than normal) and flashes an error message.
Check: Start the machine again. Count the number of 'beeps' - write
them down and also exactly what the error message says. Give this information
to your computer tech when you call him/her.
I've given you just some of the basic things you should check when your PC has a problem. This is by no means a complete listing. If you run into a problem that has you stumped, you need to seek appropriate technical support.
Have the following on hand when you start talking to support personnel.
1. Make and model of machine. It is a good idea to run MSD program prior to any problems. At the DOS prompt, type "MSD." Write down the information for the configuration. Keep that sheet in your computer folder (along with the systems disk with config.sys and autoexec.bat).
2. If any error codes show up on the screen, write them down, exactly.
3. If you've just installed new hardware or software, make sure you have
all the documentation that came with it.
4. Take a few minutes out and think through exactly the sequence prior to
the problem occurring, and what happens when the problem occurs.
Here are a few tips on who to call:
Hardware Problem.. Contact:
1. Ask other teachers in your building. They may have had the same problem.
2. If you have someone teaching computer science, ask them for advise. He
or she may make it a project for some of the students.
3. Find out who is the technical representative for the school. Your
school may be lucky enough to have one in the building.
4. The school district technical representative will probably be your best
bet, if you don't have such a person right there at your school.
5. You could call the maker of the PC., though I kind of discourage this for school a computer. Your representative will be better able to explain the problem along with any history of problems in the school district. Most PC makers realize that the "school tech" has a lot of influence on which computers are purchased in the future. Besides, after your school rep looks over your machine, kicks it around a bit, he/she will be able to 'talk the talk' with the venders.
Software:
Same as above, 1-4. However, the school rep may well ask you to call and talk to the program maker. The software vender will want to know the license number and other related material, so have that ready when you talk to them. You will need to have the machine nearby the phone when you call them. Don't be surprised if they "walk you through" the problem. I think you will find most of the software folks are pretty easy to get along with, especially if you have all your notes on what happens when you try and run their software. If you still feel a little intimidated by the thought of talking to these folks, invite one of the other teachers who is computer savvy to do it for you. Of course, I'd recommend bringing that person a donut when you ask them... A little incentive, never hurts!
I hope you found this information useful. Remember, don't let the problems stress you out, there are a lot of people ready to give you assistance.
Speeding up your School Network
Those of you lucky enough to have a school "wired" for the Internet will probably see a strange thing happen. Your fast system will start to slow down just a little bit. At first, this will hardly be perceptible, but as time passes, you'll notice that it happens more often and becomes a real 'drag', sorry about that. The bandwidth or pipeline starts to get bogged down the more computers and users that log on. The 10 Megabits per second Ethernet cable used to connect the school's server can be saturated with heavy traffic as 50 plus client PCs get begin operations.
Those of you who have not fallen asleep and are still reading this article are probably technology school/district reps, pray continue reading. First, I'll cover a couple of tips that we all need to be reminded of every once in awhile. (Those of you with one machine, and not interested in networks, feel free to skip this section.)
Tips
If there is one great truth in PC Networking, it is that nothing is ever simple. It doesn't matter if you are using Windows 95, Windows for Workgroups, or Windows NT, your setup may not work the way it is supposed to. You might reboot, log on, and then realize that you are not connected! Try these steps before calling for help.
1. When you are dusting off your machines, make sure your network cables are in good shape and not being pinched by desk chairs or any other type of furniture. For some reason these telephone looking cables (they are normally what they call RJ-45s) go bad fairly quickly. Always keep a supply of extra cables so you can swap them. This is a good way to check them and see if there is any problem.
2. Make sure that your BNC cables, if you have them, are securely attached to both the T-connectors and the connector on the network interface card located in the computer. The BNC cables are the ones that look like your television cables at home,
3. Use the utility program that came with your network card to make sure your network-card settings are correct and there are no address conflicts between the card and other peripherals.
Double check the jumpers for the correct IRQ (fancy name for Interrupt Rights ) port, DMA( Direct Memory Address ), and memory-address settings. If this intimidates you, get one of the computer techs at school to show you what these things do.
4. Lastly, are the right protocols and services installed? Protocols allow the computers to communicate in the same language. For a very simple file and print sharing on a Microsoft network, you'll need to get a copy of NetBEUI plus File and Print Sharing for Microsoft Networks. Other networks use different file and print programs. If you are not a school technical rep, before you go out and get this, do check with your district technical rep.
There are a few things that you can do to speed up the network without costing the district a large amount of money. Here are a few suggestions:
1. Check on the possibility of adding a network adapter to your server. (Normally, you can add up to four of these little critters to the system.) By adding an adapter you break the network clients into segments, which will provide more bandwidth for the end user. Result, speed! Adding an adapter isn't free though. Each adapter will require additional server memory and processor time. With newer servers packing P-6 or Power PC chips, this should not pose a problem. Older 286/386 servers may take a beating on this suggestion though. You may also have to do some rewiring to segment the cabling too, but that"s not a given.
2. If you can't resegment your network, check to see if your server has a fast Ethernet adapter. If it doesn't, then replace the adapter you do have with the fastest Ethernet adapter that you can. It also helps if you could insure that your big time users, such as school labs have fast cards as well. This will allow all of us with poky cards more bandwidth.
3. This next suggestion is a little more costly to implement. Install an Ethernet switch. A standard Ethernet hub does not filter out useless or corrupted data packets. This can have a dramatic affect on the network speed during peak using times, since machines must re-request new packets. An Ethernet switch offers a full 10Mbps pipe to every port. I won't bore you with the different switch filtering techniques except that the "store and forward" technique does check every packet for errors before allowing the packet to go on its way. This is a little slower than the "cut through" technique that doesn't, but either way, it is an option. You'll probably want to design a plan as these little puppies run about two grand each. Make sure your plan includes a full Ethernet switch port for the file server and then branch out from there.
There are a few other ways of speeding up your network, but most of these would apply to businesses that normally have a lot more money to spend than schools or school districts. Therefore, I think I'll quit while I'm ahead. This article, if nothing else, may allow you to consider some ways of speeding up your current system. I hope I've given you some things to think about.
A good reference book to get is Upgrading and Fixing PCs for Dummies by Andy Rathbone. it is published by IDG Books Worldwide, Inc. ISBN: 1-56884-903.
The Basics Of Networking..
By: John MacCannell
In today's world most people are faced with the daunting task of dealing with networks. Whether simply withdrawing cash from an Automated Teller Machine or having a real-time on-line discussion with researchers from "Down-Under," a person has to deal with computer networks. The average person knows very little about how these networks, which are so fundamental to modern society, actually work. Educators are one of the largest groups of network users. In fact, if an educator plans to use computers in the educational process, at some point they will have to deal with a network. It is important that any individual utilizing a network understand basics about operating it. I have lost count of how many times teachers I have worked with complained about how they had to "re-organize" an assignment because the computer network was not working correctly and the technology specialist was not available. Problems like the one mentioned could have been alleviated if the teacher understood basic network operation.
This article is designed to give very general information about network operation and common networking problems. The information given here is quite general and independent of computer platforms and Network Operating Systems (NOS). By no means is this supposed to be a complete guide to networking. Instead, it is an overview of what is needed by the typical person to help understand networks. The information will be presented in three parts. First, basic information and terminology will be described. Next, a discussion about styles of networks and problems common to each style will be given. Last, is a brief commentary of NOS and their common problems.
Networks, What are they?
In simplest terms, a computer network is the connection of two or more computers for the purpose of communication, data transmission, or file sharing. For the general user, this is a the most useful definition. It encompasses what a network is and its uses. The problem with this definition is that it gives no specific information on the wide range of different ways to form the connections. Therefore, classification of various computer networks is accomplished through the wide range of network architecture or topology.
Network Structure
Network structure, or architecture, is literally how the computers are connected together. Many people associate different structures with specific NOS, or computers, because particular NOS are designed around working on specific structures. Classification based on architecture is important to the user. Even though they rarely deal with the structure, it is important to know which type is being dealt with because each architecture has specific problems which must be overcome when the network "breaks down." If the user identifies these problems it can help quicken needed repairs or anomaly resolution.
Network Scope
The lack of dealing directly with the topology of a network has led to other classification schemes, many of which are hardly ever used. The most common way of classifying a network is by its scope. A network's scope refers to the purpose and geographical region of the network. An example of this is New Mexico Technet has a different scope than the Internet. Whether a network is being used for communication, data transfer, or file sharing and depending on if the network is at one site or connects many sites changes the scope of the network.
Common Networking Terms
In order to understand a discussion on networking, a person must familiarize oneself with several technical terms. These terms occur so often in reference to networks that anyone dealing with networks should understand them.
Address: A numerical value given to every device within a network that uniquely identifies that device and tells every other device how to reach that device.
Cabling: Refers to all external hardware used to connect the computers together in the network.
Client: A computer that initializes a task. It requires information on another network computer to complete the task.
Concentrator: A device that splits or puts together signals from multiple computers. This device is used with a network which utilizes twisted-pair cables.
File server: A computer on a network that is set aside for file storage which usually contains the Network Operating System (NOS) and the log-in information.
Protocol: The way a particular NOS transfers information through the network. The three most common protocols are Token, Ethernet, and Transfer-Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP).
Repeater: A device used to regenerate or repeat a signal in a network cable line. These are especially used in networks that use Coaxial Cable or other cables that loose signal integrity over long distances.
Router: A device used to connect together networks that use different protocols.
Securities: The general term that refers to restrictions given to network users. These usually deal with file access and usable space on the file server.
Server: A computer that is asked to perform a set of operations by a client.
Site: A small geographical location usually a building or school campus in which a network resides.
Topology: This is the word used to refer to the architecture or structure of a network.
Networks, Types and Problems
Whether a network is classified by structure or scope, it contains unique problems associated with its classification. The first four classifications discussed below are topological and the last four are scope. It is important to remember that the problems are independent of the Network Operating System.
Ring
A ring structure is more accurately called a token-ring. The network is formed by connecting a set of computers in series. The reason it is said to be a "ring" is a person can start at one computer and work their way around all the computers until he or she reaches the starting point. Thus, the connection forms a closed loop or ring. Communication is accomplished by passing packets called tokens between the computers.
The major problem with this type of network is its sensitivity. Each computer or device in the ring has to function correctly for the network to work. There also is a problem with communication on the network. Turning a device off brakes the ring. If there are devices to the left and right of a computer in the ring turned off, that computer cannot communicate with any device past the devices that have been shut down.
Star
Star topology is formed by each computer in the network having an individual connection to the file server. The analogy is that the file server rests in the center of the star and each computer is a point. Communication can be done through a multitude of protocols.
The two main problems with this topology are limitation of devices and stress on the file server. Each server can only connect to a given number of devices. This creates limitations on the size of the network. The stress factor causes data communication problems. All data has to go through the server. This can also result in memory problems, slow access to files, and corrupted data transfers. One of the most common error messages a person will receive is an "unable to access server" statement. This is due to many people accessing the server at the same time or two or more users trying to access the same information.
Tree
A tree structure is formed by the file server being connected to multiple computers through a series of concentrators. Therefore, the server is the trunk, the cables are branches, each concentrator is where the branches split, and the individual computers are the leaves. This network topology is much more stable then a star and can use almost any protocol to communicate between the machines. The biggest advantage a tree has over the previous structures is the sheer number of computers it can have connected to a single server. There are fewer problems with the server because the server is only contacted when the client computers need to access it. For communicating between the machines the message is sent up the branch until it reaches the right node and then is set down the branching structure to the correct computer.
There is only one major problem with this system and that is failure in a concentrator. The tree structure can become so complex that to find the malfunctioning concentrator can be difficult. There is an added complexity here because it can be a specific connector on the concentrator that is the problem. If this is the situation, the user could receive intermittent errors. The errors that occur can also appear as if they are coming from the network connection card in the computer.
Bus
The last topological design is also the oldest. This is the Bus design. It is formed by laying a wire, referred to as the backbone, and connecting each device to it using a T-connection. The "Bus-stop" analogy clearly describes this design. The analogy comes from the backbone being a bus route and each device is a bus stop. The information can get on or of the bus. There is no theoretical limit to the number of devices you can connect to a bus. (The Internet uses a bus topology as its "backbone.") However, there is a practical limit. A bus uses a coaxial cable which requires a repeater be placed every so often on the bus line. On average this is usually 150 feet. (Well, buses need gas.)
There are two major problems with this topology. First, the bus lines require a terminator at the ends and at the end of any secondary lines. The loss or bad connection of a terminator can result in failure of the entire network or cause intermittent errors. The next is that a malfunctioning repeater can cause data corruption and network failure.
Workgroups (Peer-to-Peer Networks)
A workgroup is the simplest form of a network. Each computer is allowed to access the other harddrives. Each user then sets securities for the data on their own computer. One important note is that a computer can belong to more than one workgroup and that they may be logged on to multiple workgroups at the same time.
There are two major problems with this kind of network. First, since there is no file server, information can be hard to locate. This problem is worsened by the fact that if an individual computer is turned off there is no way of accessing the information on that computer. This results in "not a valid drive" message. The second problem is that the more computers in a workgroup the slower the network functions. There is also a problem with distances. Workgroups do not function well if the users are too "spread-out." Using them to connect more than one site causes problems with speed and data accuracy.
Local Area Networks (LANs)
LANs are the most common network used. They are formed by hooking computers to a file server. This can be done in many different fashions. However, they are characterized by each client having a direct route to the server. Unlike a workgroup, the computers do not directly talk with eachother. This means one can not be at computer A and read computer B's harddrive (unless computer B is the server). One similarity they do have with a workgroup is distance limitations. A LAN usually is site-based.
The major problem with LANs are client/server errors. This means that there is a problem with the client accessing the server. This is usually due to a problem with the physical connections or memory and access issues with the server. There are also client problems, meaning there is a physical or logical problem with how the computer is configured.
Wide Area Networks (WANs)
A WAN is simply a network formed by connection of LANs. This allows clients to access multiple servers. These also cover large geographical areas ranging from entire cites to entire countries. An example of a WAN is Technet.
There are many problems with WANs that usually require a trained person to deal with them. These problems are basically the same type as a LAN but also involve addressing issues. Any problem that involves an address error should have a trained individual deal with it.
Global Networks
A global network is a network that covers multiple countries and is formed by networking WANs together. A perfect example is the Internet.
The problems encountered on one of these are usually client/server and deal with securities and access speed. The only thing a casual user can do is make sure the client has the correct address and gateway assigned to it. These usually can be found in a database. I recommend that unless you have training in setting these, leave them alone and report the problem.
Networks, How do they Operate?
The functioning of a network is controlled by the Network Operating System (NOS). These systems determine everything from file access to transfer protocols. There are many different NOS available. Like any operating system, each has its on unique anomalies. NOS are categorized by the scope of the network they operate. There are Workgroup Operating Systems, LAN Management Systems, and WAN Management Systems. However, some NOS, like Microsoft LAN Managerô, can control all three network scopes.
The typical user needs to know little about the operation of a NOS. What an individual needs to know is simply the commands to log-on or -off the network, basics about the protocol used for communication, basic network commands for locating information, and how to send messages to other users. Another important issue about networks concerns platform. The reason this is important is the NOS does not replace the operating system on the computer. The same NOS will behave differently on a computer that uses MAC-OS, than DOS. Some NOS are platform dependent. A computer using DOS or Microsoft Windows 95 can not use AppleTalkto form a network. Similarly, Macintosh computers can not use Microsoft LAN Manager.
The five most common networking NOS used are Novel Netware, AppleTalk, Microsoft LAN Manager, Microsoft Workgroups for Windows, and LANtastic. Each one of these NOS has its uses but Netwareô and LANtastic provide cross-platform capabilities with their systems. The advantages to this are data transfer between the different platforms is possible and consolidation of networks. By far the most used network system is Novel Netware. For this reason, the rest of the information presented will deal with Novel Netware though many of the issues occur with other systems.
Any NOS can be divided into two parts if a server is present. The first part is often referred to as the client operating files. These are the files that a client device needs loaded to connect and communicate with the network. The second part is the server operation files. These are the files that control the network securities, house log-on information, and contain the server operating system.
One of the biggest problems with Novel Netwareô occurs with the DOSô platform. This is the client operating files must be loaded in the conventional memory. This creates many memory problems in the client machine. Another major problem Novel has is with copying files. Since it can be used cross-platform, you can manipulate DOSô files and Mac files from either platform. (WRONG!!!) While this should be the case, copying Mac files on a DOSô computer attached to the network can cause all sorts of problems. This is due to how each operating system handles the "Name Space" for each file.
A feature of Novel and other NOS is they allow the system operator to set limits on several things. The two most important are how many users can be logged-in to the network at the same time and how many users can access shared programs at the same time. This does create problems. A user may receive a message saying "Cannot Access Network File" or "Network Not Responding." Another problem these limits cause is client hanging. If the network has reached a set limit or is in high use, it may not be able to generate error messages and the client just sits and waits for a response from the server.
I hope this has shown how enormous a task it is to deal with networks. A network's topology, scope, and operating system are only part of what needs to be dealt with. There are many other factors not discused here that also need consideration. However, the basic areas discussed here should help the general user appreciate the complexity of networks and their operation. If a user understands just a little about network functioning, they can help alleviate problems. If more information on network operation is desired, I recommend two books to get started, Networks for Dummies and The Idiots Guide to Networking. One must understand that computers are here to stay and so are networks. for better or worse.
John Alexander MacCannell
Mr. MacCannell is a 25 year old Graduate Student at New Mexico State University. He is currently working on a Masters of Curriculum and Instruction with certification in Mathematics and Science. John is also specializing in Educational Technologies. He has a Bachelor of Science degree in both Mathematics and Physics with a minor in Literature. His area of specialty in physics is in Computational Physics and Computer Molding. He currently works at New Mexico State University as a tutor for the Student Support Services office. If you have any questions, he may be reached at (505)526-6770 or e-mail at jmaccann@nmsu.edu or fridayjohn@aol.com
Virus Hunting....
By: David Matarazzo
Those dreaded little creatures that make their creators feel imporant in some way are viruses. They are out there and it is just a fact of life that you will run into one of these critters some time in your life. Like any other area, one of the best defense against these potholes in the superhighway is knowing:
1. They do exist.
2. There are ways to avoid/kill them.
Are they real?
First, most of us have heard that they are real, but unless you actually see them in action, it typically is ' it only happens to the other guy syndrome.' Well, companies around the world have lost hundreds of millions in revenues because they did not take the threat seriously, until after the damage was done. The funny thing about viruses is that they don't really care if your computer is part of a huge business, a school system or a home machine. They just do their thing!
How do we avoid them?
They are spread by contaminated floppy disks or programs. I can't think of a better reason to avoid pirated or illegal software programs . On occasion a company will unknowingly send infected originals but your chances of having your machine infected this way are probably less than getting hit by a semi-truck crossing the street.
Therefore, establish a policy that disks must be scanned for viruses before they can be used in your school machine. Yes, it is a pain, but a policy that is enforced will prevent 95 percent of your virus problems. Better yet, establish a policy that does not allow travelling disks. That is, disks at school are the only ones allowed to be used on school computers.
Next insure that you have some type of virus detection program. There are several very good ones on the market today. They normally will not only detect the critters, but will also be able to wipe them out as well.
Make sure that you get virus detection programs that can be periodically updated as there are 'new' viruses being created all the time. Build into your budget money that will allow you to keep your virus detection programs current. It is just a fact of life and the cost of doing business. The company providing the virus detection/protection is an excellent resource in giving you assistance if there is a problem you cannot fix yourself.
All of this information cannot be effective unless your students understand that policies set in place will prevent their projects from becoming infected. They need to understand that trading disks from home can and does transmit viruses Good procedures will do a lot to prevent most problems. Your students will benefit from 'safe computing' at school and in the future business workplace.
Assessing Learning with Technology
By: Karin Wiburg
As I look back over recent research windows I realize that concerns with assessment are an increasingly important part of researchers' efforts to study the impact of technology on teaching and learning. In the column on changing teaching with technology, I reported on research by JoAnn Uslick and Carole Walker (1994) which suggested how standardized tests in mathematics limited innovation in mathematics teaching. Similarly, the November column on technology and teaching mathematics had a section on the importance of alternative assessment for teachers enrolled in a pre-service mathematics methods class.
Increased Interest in Assessment
Assessment is hot. Literature searches result in overwhelming amounts of material on the subject, from new books to journal articles. Educational researchers and writers have responded to what is perceived as a national need for new forms of assessment (Berklak,.et. al, 1992; Kulm &Malcom, 1991). A variety of factors have influenced this situation: a national call for increased accountability beginning with a Nation at Risk; the existence of new technology tools such as multimedia and the Internet which allow expanded forms of learning and presentation; changed standards in the content areas (NCTM, 1989 ); criticism from businesses that students have not been prepared for today's work; and increased calls for alternatives to traditional schooling (Perelman, 1994). In addition, as expectations of what students need to know change from the recall of information to the ability to think and solve complex problems, questions arise about how we will assess these desired new outcomes and what role can technology play in this assessment.
This month's column looks at assessment both in terms of how it is used to assess what students are learning with technology as well as how technology can support expanded models of assessment.
Assessing student problem-solving with computers
Maria Cardelle-Eiawar and Keith Wetzel recently studied how computer-based problem solving programs together with new instructional approaches might impact second and fourth grade students. They were interested in tapping computers as mediators of problem solving by students rather than the more traditional approach of using computers for drill and practice. In order to assess what students learned in these problem-solving situations, they used a variety of strategies including reviewing student journals and written notes from classroom conversations, interviewing teachers and observing students working.
Cardelle-Elawar, M. and Wetzel, K. (1995) Students and Computers as Partners in Developing Students' Problem-Solving Skills. Journal of Research on Computing in Education. 27 (4), 387-401.
The authors credited work by Allison King (1991) in which students used peer-guided questions to solve problems on a computer as inspiration for this research. In King's study, students in the experimental group using peer-guided questions to solve problems were more successful than students in a control group who were confronted with the same computer-presented problems but did not have the questions. Cardelle-Ealwar and Wetzel's study was designed to add to King's work in several ways. First, teachers taught children a problem-solving strategy developed by Cardelle-Elawar called IDEA (Identify, Define, Explore strategies, and Assess progress in solving the problem). Second, students participated in a discussion following each problem-solving session on the appropriateness of the strategies they used, and finally, students were asked to write in journals about their experiences.
One-hundred and twenty students in grade two and four participated in the study and were selected from teacher volunteers in a school with an adequate computer facility for conducting the study. The study was located in a middle-income, growing city in Arizona. As is typical in many schools (see Becker, 1994), students had traditionally used computers under the supervision of a lab assistant in situations in which there was little connection between what they were doing in the regular classrooms with their teachers and what they did with computers. In contrast, this study was designed so that teachers took their students to the lab and engaged them in using the IDEA model while interacting with appropriate computer problem-solving software. All students worked in pairs and engaged in teacher-guided class discussions after problem-solving sessions. The software used was selected because it had been successfully used for problem-solving in previous research, contained key concepts from the elementary mathematics and science curriculum, and was appropriate for second and fourth grade students. All software came from the Wings for Learning/Sunburst Company and included Bounce, Ponds, Safari Search, and Puzzle Tanks.
The study was conducted over a fifteen week period. Each team of students spent two sessions using each piece of software and took turns as recorder or keyboarder. During these sessions, students used self-guided peer questioning within the framework of the IDEA model. When students had problems, they were encouraged to reflect with each other on how they were responding to each stage of the problem-solving process, such as how well they identified and defined the problem. After two, one-hour sessions using the computer software, the students engaged in a teacher-guided discussion about the successes and problems they had encountered. Specifically, the students and their teacher assessed their learning of the problem-solving process together. The teacher recorded the results of these investigations and the session concluded with students writing in their journals about their experiences. The assessment also served as an instructional process. Through this group process, students learned quickly how to improve their problem-solving strategies during the next computer learning time.
The researchers concluded that both second and fourth grade students were able to use all the steps of the problem-solving process although fourth grades were better able to describe and elaborate on the process. In addition to providing evidence that young elementary students can engage in collaborative problem solving with the assistance of computer-based problems, this study suggests the importance of alternative assessments, such as student writing and teacher-guided discussion, both for assessing learning with technology and as a teaching strategy for improving student problem-solving.
The many uses of videotape for assessment
Sometimes in the rush to get the latest and greatest, we fail to exploit the potential of old technologies such as instructional television, over-head projectors, and videotape. A teacher of exceptional children, Sadie Broome and a university teacher educator, Richard White reviewed the literature on using videotape for assessment and instruction and then used videotape to assess the students in Broome's behavior disorders class.
Broome, S. & White, R. (Spring 1995) The Many Uses of Videotape in Classrooms Serving Youth with Behavioral Disorders. Teaching Exceptional Children, 10-13.
Their work shows how videotape can be used in a variety of ways for assessment. The video camera can be set up to record a specific instructional session with specific purposes or simply left to run in the cafeteria, on the playground or in the classroom. It is often necessary when working with behaviorally-disturbed children to assess these students' strengths and weaknesses. A running videotape account of their behavior greatly assists in this process. Students, after watching their behavior on tape, often see problems they were not previously aware of and, according to these authors, then take a more active role in setting their own goals. Taped behavior sequences can also be used for peer-mediated strategies, although it is important to provide clear rules about how students can do this helpfully.
A video image of what the student is doing can be helpful to both the students and teacher in a way that notes or talking about behavior can't be. For example, in video one notices the incongruity between what one says and body language, tone of voice, and other physical actions that may be giving a different message than intended. These writers and other researchers (Michel and Blistein, 1979) have found that videotapes are more effective than other non-technology-based methods for correcting disturbed adolescents distorted self-assessment of personal behavior..
"For example one of kids was considered aggressive by his general education teachers and students because of his loud and rough voice. When he viewed the tapes, he was able to clearly see and hear his aggressive tone when making a request. Prior to viewing the tape he had no idea how he affected other people and was unclear what we meant by aggressive voice until he viewed the tapes" p. 12
Videotape can also be used to catch good behavior and presentations on video can build student self-esteem. One of the teachers enrolled in an action research group I coordinate at New Mexico State University, Susie Ceppi-Busman was surprised to find that her third grade students were much more articulate in expressing how they solved mathematics problems when given a chance to explain what they did in front of a video camera. The videotaping itself served to increase the students' interest in mathematical communication.
Technology support for assessment
Related to efforts to change what students learn and how they learn is the need to measure progress towards new educational goals. Karen Sheinfold and John Frederiksen have contributed an excellent chapter on the use of technology to support innovative assessment While this work is in the theoretical rather than experimental area of research, it provides an excellent foundation for thinking about the power of technology to support alternative and expanded forms of assessment.
Sheingold, K. and Frederiksen, J. (1994) Using Technology to Support Innovative Assessment. In ed. Means, B. Technology and Education Reform, New York: Jossey-Bass Education Series.
The authors argue that a strong link between assessment and reform requires the use of technologies such as computers, telecommunications and multimedia data bases. They describe in detail the ways in which technology-based assessment can foster educational reform. Technology makes it possible to support expanded forms of assessment, new criteria for judging student work, and, most important, expanded audiences which can be involved in developing these criteria. The chapter is well worth reading and describes in detail five central functions that technology can perform to help link assessment with education reform. The five functions are summarized briefly here:
1. Technology can support students' work in extended, authentic learning activities as a result of available tools for representing, recording and publishing knowledge. Students are no longer limited to expressing their ideas in single copies of printed or hand-written documents. They can easily publish over the Internet using their own Home pages or produce professional-looking newspapers and books. Nor are they limited to just print. Computer tools such as spreadsheets and CAD programs support communication of ideas in representational forms.
2. Technology makes possible portable, accessible copies and replayable performances. Student presentations can be saved to disk or recorded on video or audio tape and played as many times as needed for purposes of assessment. Electronic portfolios make it easier to save a variety of student work and copy it for multiple audiences and judges.
3. Technology can provide libraries of examples of optimal student work, as well as interpretive tools. For example, teacher educators can work with practicing teachers to record real, optimal teaching and learning experiences in classrooms. Multimedia data bases make it possible for student teachers to call up recorded examples of exemplary teaching of concepts and processes in any content area. Note taking tools and organizers on-line would make it possible for those studying and learning about teaching to organize these examples and comment on them.
4. Using telecommunications, multimedia cd-roms and laserdiscs, digital television, and video and audio recorders, examples of student performances could be made available to a much larger audience who are interested in what students are learning. This could make it possible for the family and community, as well as the teacher and administrator, to become involved in both encouraging and evaluating student learning.
5. Through technology, students could publish work that contributes to the knowledge base in a field. For example, students at a high school in Las Cruces, New Mexico are currently writing their own multimedia history of parts of New Mexico which have not been found in any history books. They will be making a significant contribution to the field of history, especially for minority groups who have not been well-represented in mainstream literature.
Conclusion and Implications for Teachers
New forms of assessment when supported by technology can be useful both in assessing what students learn and in expanding traditional assessment in two ways. It is now possible to involve parents and community members in the assessment process and it is easier to involve the students themselves. We know that parent involvement is a key to improving student achievement. Involvement by parents, students, and community members in the assessment of student performance should support higher student standards and achievement. In addition, new forms of assessment such as videotaping, writing, and engaging in instructional conversations with students can have a serendipitous effect on student learning as exemplified in the research reported.
References
Becker, H. J. (1994) How exemplary computer-using teachers differ from other teachers: Implications for realizing the potential of computers in schools. Journal of Research on computing in Education, 26(3), 291-321
Berklak,.H.; Newmann, F.; Adams, E. Archbold, D; Burgess, T; Raven, J. & Romberg, T. (1992) Toward a New Science of Educational Testing and Assessment, State University of New York Press.
Kulm, G. & Malcom, S. (1991) Science Assessment in the Service of Reform, American Association for the Advancement of Science.
Mitchel, J. & Biltstein, S. (1979) Use of Videotape feedback with severely disturbed adolescents. Child Welfare, 48, 245-252
NCTM, National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (1989), Curriculum and Evaluation Standards for School Mathematics. Reston, VA.
Perelman, L. (1994) School's Out
Uslick, JoAnn & Walker, Carole (1994). An Evaluation Of An Innovation: Standardized Test Scores Were Not Valid Indicators Of Success. a paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, New Orleans, Louisiana, April 4-8. also available through ERIC reproduction service ED 372 099.
Everything You Need to Know
to Write Your First Grant
Prepared specifically for New Mexico Vocational Teachers
By: Barbara Copeland
Grant writing seems like an incredible task,one that only a few people are capable of, or at least an enormous process that will take weeks to accomplish. In reality, grant writing is simple, can take less time than you would imagine, and requires only the ability to follow directions and write clearly. (For those of you who fear you can't write clearly, don't loose hope - you can always find someone to review your application. All you need to do is take the initiative to write the grant). In addition, grant writing is an excellent way to get your projects funded: including teacher training, computer labs, or printed materials.
So, how do I start?
Start with an idea of what you need. What are you trying to get funded? Write this out as specifically as possible. This may come from a gap in your technology plan, or items on your dream wish list. Perhaps you only need software for your lab, or maybe you are seeking funding to connect all the schools in your district to the internet. Create a list of all the specific things you want to get funded.
For example, let's say you are seeking funding to create a computer lab for your students. Write a list of exactly what you want. Let's call this your wish list.
1. Computer lab for 30 students containing 30 CD-ROM Multimedia computers with color monitors, and 1 Computer for the teacher. Network all computers.
2. 1 Black and White color printer connected to all computers in the
room.
3. The following software for each computer: desktop publishing, word processing,
multimedia authoring tool, dictionary and thesaurus CD-ROM.
4. Security locks for each computer to be bolted to the counter, additional deadbolts for computer lab doors, special cage covers for windows in the computer lab.
5. Two days training for teachers on computer use, and travel money to attend computer training seminar. Should include substitute for days of computer training...
This is a starting list. Once you have your list started, ask others to review your wish list. You may want a technology coordinator for your district to help you, or others in the school or community with computer experience. Is your wish list complete? Are there extras that you are overlooking? Remember to include software upgrade costs, teacher training expenses, and room improvements (like additional electricity outlets or phone lines. ) Include everything you want on this list, regardless of what you think you can get funded. Now is a good time to make some friends in the educational community. Find a partner who is willing to help you with the grant. Even if they aren't willing to lift a finger to write the grant, a friend in the educational community or university system can be invaluable in helping locate grants you may want to apply for. Tell everyone in your district what you are doing, and what you are hoping to get funded. Your friends can get information on grants that may never reach you.
A co-collaborator is also important in your proposal. Funders love teamwork, and like collaboration. Perhaps someone at a neighboring university would like to work with you on the project. Maybe someone in the district would like to help. It wouldn't hurt to have someone with a snappy title be the principal investigator, or the person who signs his or her name to the project. This probably means you will have to do the work, and they may get the credit, but their title may help you get funding.
OK, I know what I want... who will pay for it?
Understand that the chances of getting everything on your wish list paid for in one grant are very slim. You will probably need to write a few grants, or seek matching funds from community business. Now is a good time to start putting feelers out for potential funders. Does your district have money it will give you as matching funds for a grant? How can you qualify for state money for technology? Are there businesses in your community that would supply matching funds to a grant? Some businesses may only be able to put up $1000 for a technology lab, which won't go very far in purchasing technology, but it can be a good start as matching funds to a grant.
Start research for grant funders. We've included the guide "XXXXX" on potential resource materials for grants. Grants come in many shapes and sizes. You may want to start with a small grant for just part of the items on your list. You may be able to find a small grant for a few thousand and buy just one computer to start. After you have written the first grant, you will be able to adapt that proposal for a second and then a third.
At this point, you are looking for a RFP (Request for Proposal). Funders issue RFP's as invitations to apply for money. You will probably not find an RFP that will fund exactly everything on your wish list. Look for something that is close, and you may need to compromise some of the things on your wish list. Also, look for money for computers in non-traditional areas. For example, you may not be able to find a grant to buy 30 computers for your lab, but you could find an RFP for revolutionary new ways to teach combine adjustment to high school teachers. In this instance, budget 30 computers as part of the project. Look for RFP's concerning technology acquisition, science instruction, youth organizations (such as FFA) agriculture and home economics education.
I have an RFP, should I start writing?
If you are absolutely certain that the RFP is exactly what you need to respond to, YES! Move on. If there is any doubt in your mind, contact them. Most funders have phone numbers and e-mail you can use to make contact. Tell them what you are thinking, and ask if it is something they are interested in. This serves two purposes: it doesn't waste your time in preparing a proposal that has no chance for funding, and it can make valuable contacts in the funder's office. A phone call notifying the funder of your intentions might help secure your funding. ("You are planning on creating a computer lab for your vocational classroom... Yes, Corporation XYZ would be very interested in that. Let me have your name so that we can be sure to look for that proposal in the mail...")
If you have time before the deadline, a letter of intent might be appropriate as well. A letter of intent is generally 3 pages, and is a synopsis of what you want funded, and the bottom line on the budget. Many funders have been know to offer grant money solely on the letter of intent. Letters of inquiry are usually 2 - 4 pages, should be on official letterhead, and should include the following:
1. Summary of the project. Include self- identification (about your school, the people benefiting from the project, and the people involved.)
2. Sponsor appeal: Why would they want to fund this? What are there interests,
and how does this project meet them?
3. Problem: Why does this need to be funded? Vocational education isn't
up to par? Test scores low? Does the workforce demand computer educated
high school graduates? Get statistics and information and include it hear.
4. Solution: How will your project solve the problem?
5. Capabilities: Why should you be the one to solve this problem? Are you
the only one in the community with the ability? Has the school been successful
at solving other problems?
6. Budget: How much will this cost them? Give a precise amount and make it meaningful. I.e. "at a cost of only $250/student over a 5 year period, graduates of Central High School can earn training in word processing, database management, page layout and basic graphic programs." Also mention financial collaborators. "Community donors have committed themselves to offering $5,000 matching funds for this project" or "Similar funding is also being requested from U.S. West Challenge for America grants and the Kellogg foundation Excellence in schools projects."
7. Conclusion: Identify desired action. "Please contact your name at your phone number for more information." Have an the highest ranking person in your area sign the letter. Your principal or school board president should support your efforts, and would probably be happy to sign such a letter.
The proposal: Is it really as hard as it looks?
The nice thing about RFP's is everything you need to know to write a grant proposal is included in the RFP. Most RFP's are very specific, even including the format of the proposal, what will and will not be funded, and how many pages the grant proposal can contain. Make sure to follow their guidelines to the letter. Also, take note of the key phrases in the grant. Try to understand the motives of the funder. If you understand why they are willing to give you money, you can better shape the proposal to meet their interests. Remember, you need to cater to their interests, not vice versa.
Most proposals follow a standard form. Many grant writers start with what they call a boilerplate. This boiler plate is a generic grant, written to an imaginary RFP. Because many RFP's can be released only months before the grant deadline, having a boilerplate helps. You can get a good start on grant writing on creating a boilerplate that meets the following guidelines, and then adapting your boilerplate to each specific RFP.
What format do most RFP's include?
The standard RFP includes the following:
Summary: This will be the first thing read by your funder, and will probably be the only thing read by the screeners of hundreds of proposals. Make it clear how this proposal is exactly what the RFP requested. Include your credibility; a brief summary of the project; the project objectives and activities; total cost, funds already committed, and amount asked for in this proposal. Write the summary last, after you have nailed down all the details, and are able to summarize in a concise way.
Introduction: Describe your school' s qualifications as an applicant for funding. You may also want to include successes of your school (we have the highest ACT scores in our state) and weaknesses that highlight your needs (a high percentage of students on free lunch program.) Establish your creditability.
Problem Statement or Needs Assessment: What is the problem? Prove it with statistics or other information. Students with little to no computer experience? Higher salaries for high school grads with computer experience? Do you have more students than your current technology can accommodate? Is New Mexico at bottom of list for technology integration in schools? Tell them why you need help.
Objectives: Tell them that the objective of the project is to solve the problem. "The Capitan computers in the Schools project seeks to give every graduate computer experience in one of three areas." Make your objectives measurable, and make them answers to the problems or needs in the previous section.
Methods: How are you going to meet your objectives. Include a time period, and all activities. Include training of the teachers to use the technology, and where you got the ideas for the lab. "The lab will be structured according to the recommendations of XXX and is in line with the district technology plan." This is where you can sell your lab. "The lab is designed to take the school into the 21st century and has room for expansion. The budget includes software upgrade expenses for 5 years, and includes training for all teachers involved in classroom instruction in the lab." Look to other successfully funded programs for methods that work in your particular area.
Evaluation: Most funders want to know how you will evaluate the program and provide accountability. Check your RFP for the desired Evaluation procedure.
Future or Other Necessary Funding: Are you planning to seek funding in two years to upgrade the lab? Will students be involved in additional fundraising projects?
Budget: The best way to prepare a budget is to research other proposals. This can be the hardest part for a teacher not involved in technology purchase, but you can get help from technology experts in your community or private businesses. Check out our guide in purchasing technology. Your budget needs to be very specific, and follow their guidelines.
How much time is this going to take me?
Be fair to yourself, and give yourself the time you need to do a good job. You should plan a good day's work to each of the following: wish list design, boilerplate construction, searching for RFP's, constructing and sending out letters of inquiry. The actual proposal construction should take about a day, if you have a good boiler plate to start with. You should also allocate a day to creating a budget if you have never prepared a budget for technology purchases before. Once you have a good boiler plate, and some grants under your belt, you will be able to crank out a simple proposal in about 6 hours. You may want to ask your boss for some time off to start this grant. Also, look for boilerplates your school or district have used to request funding.
Any other useful tips?
The most important thing to remember is to take the plunge and write a grant. You may not be funded the first proposal. Don't give up. You may even call the funder and ask how else you could have made your proposal more attractive. Proposal writing just takes practice. Here are some great suggestions...
1. Make sure your proposal follows their format exactly. Many large funders receive so many proposals, they simply throw out the ones that don't meet their guidelines. Do your margins meet their requirements? How about font size? Do you have the correct signatures? Is spelling impeccable? Cross every t and dot every i.
2. Call people who received the grant the year before. Most are very happy to talk to you, and you can get a good idea of what the funder is looking for. Ask for a copy of their funded proposal.
3. Make sure your proposal is easy to read, and in plain English. Have
friends review your writing, to make sure it reads well.
4. Seek out examples of funded RFP's. Even if you cannot find one from your
specific funder, by comparing other proposals, you can objectively review
your own.
5. Include charts, bullets, and diagrams when possible to illustrate your points. The goal for a proposal is to be easy to read, not academic.
|
|
|
|
| |
| ||
